www.akht.or.kr

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Studies

The Academy of Korea Hospitality & Tourism

An empirical study on applying organizational support theory: beyond the migrant worker boundary condition in small and medium-sized restaurant

조직후원이론 적용에 관한 실증연구: 중소규모 레스토랑에서 이주노동자의 경계조건의 극복

최형민* ․ 김용중**

(사)한국호텔관광학회 호텔관광연구 2022 제24권 제2호 (통권91호)

호텔관광연구 제24권 제2호 (통권91호) pp. ###-###	ISSN 1229-3482
https://doi.org/10.31667/jhts.2022.4.91.###	(사)한국호텔관광학회 2022년 04월

ⓒ 2022 Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Studies

ⓒ 2022 Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Studies

Choi, Hyung-Min ․ Kim, Yong-joong

*

**

영산대학교 외식경영학과 조교수, hmchoi@ysu.ac.kr 관심분야: 환대산업, 인적자원관리, 브랜드관리

Research Faculty, Dedman School of Hospitality, Florida State University, ykim@dedman.fsu.edu 관심분야: 환대산업, 인적자원관리, 환경경영 (교신저자)

요약

이주 노동자는 국내 중소규모 음식점의 중요한 노동력을 제공하지만 종종 유리천장에 직면하는 소외 집단이다. 본 연구는 조직후원이론을 적용하여 조직후원인식, 직무만족, 이직의도 간의 관계를 중소규모 외식산업의 맥락에서 규명하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 본 연구는 이러한 이주 노동자의 경계 조건을 알아보기 위해 이주 노동자와 내국인 노동자를 비교한다. 본 연구는 복합 표본추출법(응답자 주도 표본 추출법, 자발적 표본 추출법)으로 한국의 중소규모 외식업에 종사하는 이주 노동자와 내국인 노동자들로부터 208개의 유효표본을 확보하였다. 연구결과, 중소규모 외식산업에서 조직후원인식은 직무만족에 정(+)의 유의한 영향을 미치며, 조직후원인식과 직무만족이 이직의도에 부(-)의 유의한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 또한, 직무만족은 조직후원인식과 이직의도 간의 관계에서 부분매개 역할을 하는 것으로 나타났다. 이주 노동자와 내국인 노동자 표본에서 조직후원인식, 직무만족, 이직의도 간의 유의한 관계뿐만 아니라 직무만족의 매개효과도 유의한 것으로 나타났다. 흥미롭게도, 본 연구에서는 조직후원인식과 직무만족 간의 관계는 내국인 노동자보다 이주 노동자에서 더 강한 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구의 이러한 결과는 학술적 관계자와 실무자에게 중소규모 외식산업의 이주 노동자들의 경계 조건에 대한 이해를 제공한다.

핵심용어

조직후원이론, 이주노동자, 중소규모 레스토랑, 직무만족, 이직의도

ABSTRACT

Migrant workers are a minority population that often face a glass ceiling although they serve as an important labor force to small and medium-sized restaurants (SMR) in South Korea. This study aims to use organizational support theory to examine the relationships between perceived organizational support (POS), job satisfaction (JS) and turnover intention (TI) in the SMR industry context. This study also compares the relationships between migrant workers and native workers in order to explore the boundary condition of migrant workers. A mixed sampling technique (respondent-driven and voluntary sampling) let the study obtain 208 valid responses from migrants and native workers in SMRs in South Korea. The findings demonstrate that POS has a positive and significant impact on JS, and POS and JS negatively and significantly influence TI in the SMR industry setting. Furthermore, JS has a partial mediation effect in the linkage between POS and TI. The migrant and non-migrant samples show not only the significant relationships between POS, JS and TI but also the mediation effect of JS. Interestingly, there was a stronger relationship between POS and JS in migrant workers than in native workers. This study provides scholars and practitioners with a better understanding of the boundary conditions of migrant workers in the SMR industry.

KEYWORDS

organizational support theory, migrant worker, small and medium-sized restaurant, job satisfaction, turnover intention

ACCEPTANCE INFO

원고접수 : 2018년 01월 01일

원고수정 : 2018년 01월 30일

게재확정 : 2018년 02월 28일

3인 익명심사필

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded by Florida State University Research Grant in 2018

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the APTA2018 conference

I. Introduction

Due to advances in mobile technologies and transportation, the world seems closer and more connected today than in the past. The search for employment opportunities drives most people’s migration. The connection between migration and jobs has increased in various ways. For example, when companies hire skilled labor force from other countries, the workers are accompanied by their families. Also, the expanded opportunities for training and education in the West has positively affected migrant workers' employment. In addition, the drastic changes in the labor markets of developed countries has affected migration flow (Baum, 2012). Since the Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs implemented the working visit visa program in 2007, many migrant workers have come to South Korea from China. The majority of them are providing an important labor force to the small and medium-sized restaurant (SMR) industry (Lee & Choi, 2013). According to current research on hospitality migrant workers (W. G. Kim et al., 2016), labor shortage in the lodging and foodservice industries has gotten more severe over the years. Specifically, the labor shortage rate in the hospitality industry in South Korea has increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 6.4% in 2014. More seriously, this study states that the declining working-age population, due to aging and low birth rates, will aggravate the labor shortage problem in South Korea’s hospitality industry. Hospitality employees’ turnover is a topic that has received the most attention in the hospitality academic field (Brown et al., 2015). Considering the labor shortage issues in South Korea’s hospitality industry, managers and owners of SMRs need to concentrate on how to reduce the turnover rate of migrant workers, one of the greatest alternative labor force. However, limited literature addresses migrant workers’ turnover intention (TI) in SMRs.

Organizational support theory is one lens scholars can use to understand and reduce the SMR migrant workers’ turnover. The theory operates from the reciprocity norm view: an organization can elicit its members’ sense of obligation to contribute to the organization and help it reach its objectives or success, and in return, the members get support  from the organization (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Numerous studies on human resources management have empirically verified this theory to understand employees’ motivation at their workplaces (e.g., Cullen, Edwards, Casper, & Gue, 2014; K. Y. Kim, Eisenberger, & Baik, 2016). Furthermore, since Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa (1986) suggested the concept of perceived organizational support (POS), the POS has been dealt with as one of the most effective constructs for reducing employees’ turnover (e.g., Cho, Johanson, & Guchait, 2009; Maertz, Griffeth, Campbell, & Allen, 2007). The studies identically explain that employees’ intention to leave their organizations will decline when organizations show value for their employees and engage in reciprocity with them. However, hospitality academic research has been very limited not only in applying organizational support theory to migrant workers in the SMRs but also in understanding the relationships between their POS, job satisfaction (JS) and TIs.

The previous study that does apply the concept of POS to hospitality migrant workers focuses on how POS assists workers in adjusting to the host country (W. G. Kim et al., 2016) In addition, there has been an attempt (W. G. Kim et al., 2016) not only to apply social exchange theory (not organizational support theory) to migrants in the hospitality industry but also to examine the relationship between POS, JS, and TI. However, the study does not explain how migrant workers in SMRs behave differently from native workers when both worker groups receive active support from their organizations. Knowing and understanding how the different manifestations of POS relate to JS, especially for a population that is understudied and theoretically distinct from the general working population, should provide useful insights into how scholars can apply organizational support theory in a natural field setting. To address the gaps between the hospitality industry and academics, this study aims not only to examine how POS, JS, and TI are linked in SMR workers’ path diagram but also to compare the path diagram of migrant and non-migrant workers. The study also examines the mediation effects of migrants’ (or non-migrants’) JI on the relationship between POS and TI.

Ⅱ. Literature review and hypotheses development

1. Organizational support theory and perceived organizational support

From the perspective of social exchange, a positive relationship exists between an organization and employees when both the organization and employees take responsibility for one another and depend on each other; this type of reciprocity makes for a long-lasting employment relationship. In this exchange relationship, the employees can expect the organization’s valuing of them and caring about their well-being, whereas the organization looks forward to employees who contribute and are loyal to the organization (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001; Eisenberger et al., 1986; Hu, Wang, Yang, & Wu, 2014). Since Blau (1964) and Homans (1958) developed social exchange theory, scholars have made numerous attempts to apply this theory to the interactions between organizations and its members (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997). As one of the significant theoretical improvements of social exchange theory, Eisenberger et al. (1986) theorized organizational support theory, which addresses the interactional relationships between an organization and its employees from the perspective of organizational reciprocity. According to organizational support theory, employees can have the specific and comprehensive belief that their organization treats them with favorable or unfavorable attitudes. Based on this phenomenon, the authors also developed the concept of perceived organizational support (POS). The theory and concept of POS have made practitioners and scholars explore what reciprocities organizations should provide to their members.

POS generally refers to an employee’s perception concerning how much an organization values individual members’ contributions and achievements to the organization’s success and how much the organization cares for and fulfills individual members’ well-being and socioemotional needs (Eisenberger et al., 1986; W. G. Kim et al., 2016). Overall, academics accept this definition of POS (Karatepe, 2012; Robbins & Judge, 2008). The first POS study began with the observation that if managers commit to their employees’ well-being, employees, in return, commit to their organizations’ success.(Eisenberger et al., 1986). Eisenberger et al. (1986) developed the concept of POS for various disciplines with the explanation that employees’ performances get better when the organization commits to a positive reciprocal relationship with employees because employees tend to reciprocate received rewards and favorable treatment. Many academic publications (e.g., Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003; Hu et al., 2014; Walters & Raybould, 2007; Wayne et al., 1997) have stated that individuals of an organization make efforts for the organization in return for organizational support. If employees receive support, they want to remain in the organization to help it succeed. Many empirical studies based on organizational support theory in various disciplines have addressed the relationships between not only followers’ positive responses and leaders’ support (e.g., Guchait, Cho, & Meurs, 2015; Zheng et al., 2016) but also employees’ positive responses and organizational support (e.g., Allen et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2014; Kang, Twigg, & Hertzman, 2010; Maertz et al., 2007). The empirical evidence suggests that employees’ synthetical perception of support from their organization leads them to develop not only a sense of obligation to reciprocate to the organization but also a willingness to incorporate an organizational role status into their social identity.

2. Perceived organizational support and job satisfaction

According to organizational support theory and the findings of many empirical studies related to POS, organizations reinforce their employees’ positive job satisfaction when employees perceive that they are receiving strong support from their organizations. Specifically, a large number of previous studies based on organizational support theory showed that organizational support enhances employee job satisfaction, and as a result, employees do not easily leave the organizations that they belong to (Riggle, Edmondson, & Hansen, 2009). Also, previous studies (Ahn & Jun, 2010; Bonache, 2005; W. G. Kim et al., 2016; Wayne et al., 1997) demonstrated that POS is a primary key to enhancing employees’ job satisfaction. According to Wayne, Shore, and Liden’s (1997) study, organizations can expect employees’ positive satisfaction with their job when the organizations give employees the perception that the organizations strongly supports them. In the Korean foodservice context, an empirical study (Ahn & Jun, 2010) reports that POS has a positive and significant effect on employees’ job satisfaction. In addition, W. G. Kim et al. (2016) verified that the positive linkage between POS and JS exists in the hospitality migrant worker setting. Organizational support theory and the empirical findings from relevant literature offer justifications for expecting both migrant and native workers’ perception of support from SMRs to enhance their JS. Thus, the researchers articulate hypothesis 1 and its sub-hypotheses below:

H1: Perceived organizational support of employees in SMRs will positively related to their job satisfaction.

H1a: Perceived organizational support of migrant workers in SMRs will positively relate to their job satisfaction.

H1b: Perceived organizational support of native workers in SMRs will positively relate to their job satisfaction.

3. Perceived organizational support and turnover intention

Organizational support theory also underpins the relationship between POS and TI. This study expects POS to create employees’ sense of obligation to achieve organizational objectives, which is possible when employees remain in an organization. In other words, employees are less likely to leave their organization and will fulfill their obligations if they receive organizational support. Several empirical studies have found this negative linkage between POS and TI. For example, Wayne et al. (1997) trail-blazingly expanded organizational support theory by linking it to employees’ turnover. In more detail, they investigated the antecedents and consequences of both POS and leader-member exchange and obtained survey data from employees at a large company in the U.S. The evidence implies that POS has a strong and negative influence on employees’ intention to leave their companies. Building on Wayne et al.’s (1997) findings, Rhoades, Eisenberger, and Armeli (2001) empirically examined the relationship between POS and TI in testing the mediation effect of sales employees’ affective commitment on the causal path from POS to TI. Their findings demonstrate that a negative influence of POS on TI is significant before the mediator of affective commitment intervening, whereas the negative influence is not significant after affective commitment intervening. Also, Gillet, Gagné, Sauvagère, and Fouquereau (2013) examined the negative path between POS and TI of employees in French companies using a comprehensive research model. The findings of their research concur with those of a prior study (Rhoades et al., 2001) where POS was negatively related to TI. In addition, Park, Newman, Zhang, Wu, and Hooke (2016) conducted research with respect to the mentoring function with employees in the banking industry in China and found that a negative and direct effect of POS on TI is statistically significant. Based on the above literature, for this study, the authors expect POS to directly reduce TIs of both migrants and non-migrants in the context of SMRs. Therefore, hypothesis 2 and its sub-hypotheses are posited below:

H2: Perceived organizational support of employees in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

H2a: Perceived organizational support of migrant workers in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

H2b: Perceived organizational support of native workers in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

4. Job satisfaction and turnover intention

Various social science research has empirically verified the numerous antecedents of employees’ turnover intentions. Among them, job satisfaction is one of the widely studied predictors that has received the most attention from social scientists focusing on employees’ turnover. Also, many studies regarding employees’ turnover state that JS is a key factor in significantly decreasing employees’ TIs. For example, Zopiatis, Constanti, and Theocharous (2014) investigated the negative influences of two different aspects of job satisfaction—intrinsic and extrinsic—on the TI of hoteliers in Cyprus, and their findings revealed that extrinsic JS has a negative and significant path coefficient toward TI, while intrinsic JS does not. Tschopp, Grote, and Gerber (2014), as another example, conducted a longitudinal study and verified not only the linkages between Switzer employees’ JS and TI but also explored the differences between two distinctive types (independent and loyalty-focused) of employees. Their results showed that the relationship between JS and TI is stronger in independent employee groups than in loyalty-focused employees. From the migrant employee perspective, several studies have recently been published that show migrants’ JS is negatively related to their TIs (Choi, Kim, & McGinley, 2017; W. G. Kim et al., 2016). According to the discussion above, both migrants and non-migrants will experience lower turnover intentions if they feel higher job satisfaction in the SMRs they work for. Hence, this study proposes hypothesis 3 and its sub-hypotheses below:

H3: Job satisfaction of employees in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

H3a: Job satisfaction of migrant workers in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

H3b: Job satisfaction of native workers in SMRs will negatively relate to their turnover intentions.

5. Role of job satisfaction as a mediator

Considering the above discussions that support hypotheses 1 to 3 of this study, one can infer that the mediation effect of JS may potentially undergird the anticipated relationship between POS and TI. A number of empirical studies have shown that employees’ perceptions of organizational support lead to high satisfaction with their job (Ahn & Jun, 2010; Bonache, 2005; Riggle et al., 2009; Wayne et al., 1997). In addition to this, many studies have demonstrated that employees’ higher satisfaction with their job significantly decreases their intention to leave their firms or organizations (Choi et al., 2017; K. Y. Kim et al., 2016; W. G. Kim et al., 2016; Tschopp et al., 2014; Zopiatis et al., 2014). Furthermore, a few studies have examined the mediation effect of JS on the causal relationship between POS and TI. For instance, Allen et al.’s (2003) study found that JS acts as a full mediator in the relationship between POS and TI. Jawahar and Hemmasi (2006) also asserted that JS mediates the causal linkage from POS of female employees’ advancement to their TI, and then they found that JS fully mediates the relationship between POS and TI. Accordingly, drawing on previous researches, the authors also assume that JS will partially or fully mediate the relationship between POS and TI in both migrants and non-migrants, which in turn theoretically supports hypothesis 4 and its sub-hypotheses formulated below:

H4: Job satisfaction of employees in SMRs will mediate the relationship between perceived organizational support and        turnover intentions.

H4a: Job satisfaction of migrant workers in SMRs will mediate the relationship between perceived organizational             support and turnover intentions.

H4b: Job satisfaction of native workers in SMRs will mediate the relationship between perceived organizational support           and turnover intentions.

Ⅲ. Methodology

1. Sampling procedure

The target population of this study is migrant and native employees in SMRs in South Korea. Since this study focuses on two sub-samples, the researchers employed two distinct types of sampling methods for data collection. Specifically, the researchers obtained data from migrant workers in SMRs using a respondent-driven sampling technique, particularly used in research that targets hard-to-reach populations, including migrants (for more details: W. G. Kim et al., 2016). Data on native employees in SMRs came from a voluntary sampling. For this survey, the researchers hired two graduate students bilingual in Chinese and Korean and informed them of the survey procedures, research ethics, etc. Then the researchers attained the potential respondents’ consent to participate in this survey via phone calls. Next the survey administrators, equipped with tablet computers, visited the migrants’ workplaces to distribute online based questionnaires. The administrators also assessed information about the restaurants, for example, the size, number of employees, etc.

A professional translation company, employed for this study, translated the survey items from English version into Chinese and Korean, respectively, then performed a back-translation to minimize translation errors. The researchers utilized Qualtrics, one of the most famous online based questionnaire system, for this study. Self-administrated scale items with 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) for measuring their POS, JS, and TI were randomly displayed in those order. Also, a recommendation form to be offered for further potential respondents (esp., migrants) was located the end of the questionnaire.

All respondents voluntarily participated in the survey, and the researchers assured their anonymity and confidentiality. Also, the study rewarded each respondent with a gift card worth 10k to 15k KRW as a completion incentive. The researchers obtained a total of 600-completes (300 per each group) and excluded insincere responses, statistical outliers, from the data analytics process. In addition, the researchers discarded improper samples acquired from large-scale restaurants over 300 squared-meters (Kwon & Lee, 2011) in size because this study focuses on small and medium-sized restaurants. Consequently, this study analyzed 208 valid surveys consisting of 103 migrants and 105 native workers.

2. Measures

In order to measure both migrant and native workers’ perceived organizational support in the SMR setting, this study derived the short form of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS) from relevant literature (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades et al., 2001). In Rhoades et al.’s (2001) study, the survey consists of eight items, including six positive and two negative items. However, this study adapted two additional positive items from the original scale (Eisenberger et al., 1986) instead of the negative ones, then modified some of the wording to those appropriate for the restaurant context. The scale descriptions are as follow: “My restaurant values my contribution to its well-being (POS1);” “My restaurant strongly considers my goals and values (POS2);” “Help is available from the organization when I have a problem (POS3);” “My restaurant really cares about my well-being (POS4);” “My restaurant is willing to help me if I need a special favor (POS5);” “My restaurant cares about my opinion (POS6);” “My restaurant takes pride in my accomplishments at work (POS7);” “My restaurant tries to make my job as interesting as possible (POS8).”

Job satisfaction, in this study, refers to the degree of an employee’s positive feelings about the job itself (Oshagbemi, 1996). This study adapted the 4-item uni-dimensional scale from Nadiri and Tanova (2010) to measure migrant and native workers’ JS in the SMR context. The statements from the scale are as follow: “I am satisfied with the amount of pay received for the job done (JS1);” “I am satisfied with the working conditions (JS2);” “I am relatively well rewarded financially for the work (JS4).”

Turnover intention is defined as employees’ voluntary or involuntary intention to permanently leave their organization (W. G. Kim et al., 2016; Robbins & Judge, 2008). To assess SMR employees’ turnover intentions, the authors derived a 3-item scale used in the hotel employee context from Nadiri and Tanova (2010) and altered some of the wording from the original TI scale to ones compatible for the restaurant industry. The three negative items of the TI scale are as follow: “I often think that I am quitting from this restaurant (TI1);” “I will look for a new job next year probably (TI2);” “I will leave this restaurant next year (TI3).”

3. Data analysis

The researchers utilized SPSS for Windows version 22.0 and AMOS version 22.0 to analyze the valid data and conducted all the analytics processes of the study with the overall and distinct sub-samples. For a more detailed analytics process, the researchers employed a cross tabulation test to not only summarize the respondents’ demographic and job-related attributions but to also identify the differences between the two sub-samples. Based on the two-step approach (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988), the researchers performed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the measurement model before the hypotheses testing. In this step, he diagnosed a normality, a common method bias (CMB), a construct validity (a convergent and discriminant validity), and an internal consistency. Then the researchers carried out a structural equation modeling (SEM) to verify the hypotheses posited in this study. In addition, they employed a bootstrapping technique for the mediating test of JS, and a multi-group analysis estimated the differences of the path coefficients across the sub-samples.

Ⅳ. Results

1. Respondent’s profile

<Table 1> Respondents’ profile

Characteristics	Overall (n = 208)	Migrants (n = 103)	Non-migrants (n = 105)
Gender (χ2 = .145)
Male	57 (27.4%)	27 (26.2%)	30 (28.6%)
Female	151 (72.6%)	76 (73.8%)	75 (71.4%)
Age (χ2 = 3.673)
20s	32 (15.4%)	14 (13.6%)	18 (17.1%)
30s	63 (30.3%)	31 (30.1%)	32 (30.5%)
40s	78 (37.5%)	40 (38.8%)	38 (36.2%)
50s	32 (15.4%)	15 (14.6%)	17 (16.2%)
60s or more	3 (1.4%)	3 (2.9%)	–
Marital status (χ2 = 2.169)
Single	47 (22.6%)	23 (22.3%)	24 (22.9%)
Married	148 (71.2%)	71 (68.9%)	77 (73.3%)
Other	13 (6.3%)	9 (8.7%)	4 (3.8%)
Education level (χ2 = 14.769**)
Elementary school	4 (1.9%)	–	4 (3.8%)
Middle school	56 (26.9%)	21 (20.4%)	35 (33.3%)
High school	107 (51.4%)	53 (51.5%)	54 (51.4%)
Undergraduate school	32 (15.4%)	22 (21.4%)	10 (9.5%)
Graduate school	9 (4.3%)	7 (6.8%)	2 (1.9%)
Monthly wage (KRW) (χ2 = 6.211)
Less than 1.00M	8 (3.8%)	6 (5.8%)	2 (1.9%)
1.00M–1.49M	71 (34.1%)	34 (33.0%)	37 (35.2%)
1.50M–1.99M	110 (52.9%)	56 (54.4%)	54 (51.4%)
2.00M–2.49M	15 (7.2%)	7 (6.8%)	8 (7.6%)
2.50M–2.99M	3 (1.4%)	–	3 (2.9%)
3.00M or more	1 (0.5%)	–	1 (1.0%)
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

As presented in Table 1, out of 208 respondents, the majority of them in SMRs were female in the overall sample (72.6%), migrant workers sample (73.8%), and native workers sample (71.4%), and gender was not significantly different between migrant and native workers (χ2 = 0.145; p > 0.05). Regarding age structure, most of the overall sample, migrant sample, and native workers sample were in their forties (37.5%; 38.8%; 36.2%, respectively) or thirties (30.3%; 30.1%; 30.5%, respectively), and this study did not observe any significant difference across the sub-samples (χ2 = 3.673; p > 0.05).

In terms of their marital status, most of the respondents in the overall sample (71.2%) and the two sub-samples (migrant: 68.9%; native: 73.3%) were married. According to the chi-square statistic (χ2 = 2.169; p > 0.05), there was no statistical significant difference in marital status of SMR migrants and non-migrants. However, there was a significant difference between migrant and non-migrant workers regarding their educational level (χ2 = 14.769; p < 0.01). Specifically, most of the migrant workers’ educational attainments equaled (51.5%) or were higher (28.2%) than high school, while the majority of non-migrant workers were high school graduates (51.4%) or had less education (37.1%). In the monthly wage aspect, an insignificant difference between the sub-samples (χ2 = 6.211; p > 0.05) shows that most of the respondents from the overall sample received less than 2.0 million KRW (90.9%), and similarly, a great number of both migrant (93.2%) and non-migrant (88.6%) workers drew less than 2.0 million KRW. Furthermore, the overall sample had 3.9 days (SD = 1.5) on average off per month, and similarly, migrant workers had 3.8 days off (SD = 1.3) on average, and non-migrant workers had on average 4.0 days off (SD = 1.8). The average daily working hours were also similar among the overall (11.4 hrs; SD = 1.5), migrant (11.5 hrs; SD = 1.7), and non-migrant (11.3 hrs; SD = 1.4) samples. Lastly, regarding the period of sojourn, the SMR migrants had stayed in South Korea for 3.8 years (SD = 3.1) on average.

2. Measurement model

The study confirmed a normality through the skewness and kurtosis of the measures. The skewness of measures ranged from −0.457 to 0.329 and kurtosis from −0.393 to 0.252. According to the thresholds (skewness < 3; kurtosis < 10) of normality suggested by Kiline (2015), a normality issue of the measurement model is not a serious concern. Also, since respondents assessed all measures via self-administration in a cross-sectional research design, this study is not free from possible common method bias. However, the terrible fit indices for Harman’s single-factor that this study performed imply that the single latent factor did not represent all observed variables [χ2(90) = 938.283, RMR = 0.118, NFI = 0.669, TLI = 0.638, CFI = 0.689, RMSEA = 0.118]. In other words, the common method bias did not severely pervert the results of this study.

The measurement model consists of three latent variables (POS, JS, and TI) and fifteen observed variables. The fit indices for the measurement model demonstrate that the specified model accounts for the covariance matric data well [χ2(87) = 196.611, normed-χ2 = 2.260, RMR = 0.027, NFI = 0.931, TLI = 0.952; CFI = 0.960; RMSEA = 0.078]. As shown in Table 2, all observed variables are loaded to each corresponding latent variable with the highly significant standardized factor loadings ranging from 0.798 to 0.912 (13.591 ≤ t ≤ 17.912) in the overall sample, from 0.699 to 0.931 (7.678 ≤ t ≤ 15.645) in the migrant sample, and from 0.784 to 0.927 (8.736 ≤ t ≤ 11.275) in the non-migrant sample. Moreover, the indices of the average variance extracted (AVE) fulfill Fornell and Larker’s (1981) threshold (AVE > 0.5) in all three sets of data (overall: 0.808 ≤ AVE ≤ 0.814; migrant: 0.824 ≤ AVE ≤ 0.841; non-migrant: 0.788 ≤ AVE ≤ 0.793). These results consistently indicate that the convergent validity of the measurement model is satisfied in the overall, migrant and native workers sample. With respect to scale reliability, not only Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (overall: 0.891 ≤ α ≤ 0.932; migrant: 0.893 ≤ α ≤ 0.948; non-migrant: 0.875 ≤ α ≤ 0.913) but also the composite reliability (CR) values (overall: 0.927 ≤ CR ≤ 0.946; migrant: 0.933 ≤ CR ≤ 0.955; non-migrant: 0.919 ≤ CR ≤ 0.937) that satisfy Fornell and Larker’s (1981) criterion (CR > 0.7) show that all scales have high reliabilities in the overall, migrant, and non-migrant samples.

<Table 2> Convergent validity and reliability

Latent and observed variables	Overall				Migrants				Non-migrants
	SFLs	AVEs	CRs		SFLs	AVEs	CRs		SFLs	AVEs	CRs
Perceived organizational support		.743	.959			.737	.957			.742	.958
POS1	.798				.696				.840
POS2	.824				.784				.819
POS3	.820				.812				.820
POS4	.842				.821				.844
POS5	.875				.880				.855
POS6	.858				.853				.849
POS7	.824				.806				.821
POS8	.858				.890				.811
Job satisfaction		.814	.946			.834	.953			.799	.941
JS1	.868				.901				.836
JS2	.868				.878				.858
JS3	.899				.898				.907
JS4	.887				.925				.850
Turnover intention		.808	.927			.832	.937			.784	.916
TI1	.804				.777				.790
TI2	.851				.888				.798
TI3	.912				.933				.901
Notes. SFL (standardized factor loading); AVE (average variance extracted); CR (composite reliability).

<Table 3> Correlation matrices and discriminant validity

	Means	SDs	POS	JS	TI
Overall
Perceived organizational support	3.212	.777	.862
Job satisfaction	2.959	.813	.371***	.902
Turnover intention	2.774	.732	−.787***	−.444***	.899
Migrants
Perceived organizational support	3.434	.727	.861
Job satisfaction	3.048	.866	.470***	.917
Turnover intention	2.586	.713	−.755***	−.498***	.908
Non-migrants
Perceived organizational support	2.994	.766	.860
Job satisfaction	2.871	.752	.225*	.887
Turnover intention	2.959	.705	−.785***	−.360**	.890
Notes. The bold numeric on the diagonal lines shows the root squared values of AVEs. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

In order to establish the discriminant validity of the measures, the researchers compared the root-squared values of each construct’s AVE with the absolute values of the correlation coefficients between the corresponding variables. As displayed in Table 3, the root-squared values of AVEs range from 0.862 to 0.902 in the overall, from 0.861 to 0.917 in the migrant, and from 0.860 to 0.990 in the non-migrant sample, while the absolute values of the correlation coefficients range from 0.371 to 0.781 in the overall, from 0.470 to 0.755 in the migrant, and from 0.225 to 0.785 in the non-migrant sample. In each matrix, the smallest value of the root-squared AVE is far higher than the highest correlation coefficient. The results, therefore, support that the discriminant validity of the study is sufficiently validated. In sum, these results demonstrate that the convergent and discriminant validity of the measurement model of this study are established well.

3. Structural equation model

This study examines postulated hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 and the sub-hypotheses using a SEM to conduct the maximum likelihood estimation. The hypothesized model for the SEM, as presented in Figure 1, was specified with three latent variables and fifteen observed variables. The fit indices of the hypothesized model are identical to those of the measurement model because the two models have an equivalent relationship, which implies that the hypothesized model also has a good fit to the covariance matrix data. The standardized path coefficients, the significance, and the R-squared values are reported in <Figure 1>.

<Figure 1> Results of structural equation modeling

According to the R-squared values of the SMR employees’ (migrant and non-migrant workers’) JS, POS accounts for 13.8% of the total variance of JS in SMR employees and 22.1% of those in migrant workers, respectively, explaining barely 5.0% of those in the non-migrant workers sample. Also, the R-squared values of TI are reported as 0.646 in the overall employee group, 0.596 in the migrant workers group, and 0.651 in the non-migrant workers group, which imply that both POS and JS account for the majority of total variance of TIs of SMR employees, including both migrant and non-migrant workers.

Hypothesis 1 and its sub-hypotheses focus on the relationships between employees’ POS and JS in the SMR setting. In accordance with this, the SEM results demonstrate that for the overall employee sample, POS has a positive (γ1 = 0.371) and significant (t1 = 5.079; p1 < 0.001) impact on JS. The SEM results also identify that migrant workers’ POS positively (γ1a = 0.470) and significantly (t1a = 4.407; p1a < 0.001) influences their JS. For non-migrant workers, the results also show that the effect of POS on JS is positive (γ1b = 0.225) and significant (t1b = 2.145; p1b < 0.05). Therefore, hypothesis 1 and its sub-hypotheses are supported. Interestingly, the results reveal that the effect of POS on JS is greater in migrant workers than in non-migrants.

The negative relationships between the SMR employees’ POS and their TIs are posited as hypothesis 2 and its sub-hypotheses. As anticipated, the results verify that in the SMR employee group, POS negatively (γ2 = −0.722) and significantly (t2 = −9.619; p2 < 0.001) influences TIs. In addition to this, the negative effects (γ2a = −0.669; γ2b = −0.741) of POS on JS are significant (t2a = −5.564; p2a < 0.001 and t2b = −7.200; p2b < 0.001) for both migrant and non-migrant workers in the SMR setting. Thus, hypothesis 2 and its sub-hypotheses are strongly supported.

Hypothesis 3 and its sub-hypotheses state that the SMR employees’ (migrant and non-migrant workers’) JS will negatively influence their TIs. The results also indicate that the negative effects of POS on TI are significant in the overall (β3 = −0.371; t3 = −3.158; p3 < 0.01), the migrant (β3a = −0.183; t3a = −2.214; p3a < 0.05), and the non-migrant (β3b = −0.194; t3b = −2.541; p3b < 0.05) sample. Hence, hypothesis 3 and its sub-hypotheses are also supported.

4. Mediation test

In light of freedom from a normality assumption (Preacher & Hayes, 2008), this study utilized a bootstrapping technique to verify the mediation effects of JS on the linkage between POS and TI in the three sets of the sample proposed in hypothesis 4 and its sub-hypotheses. Using the bootstrapping technique, the researchers resampled 1,000 sets of data from the overall sample and obtained the same number of resampled data sets from the sub-samples, respectively, modifying the distributional biases within the 90% confidence intervals. Those results are displayed in Table 6. The standardized mediation effects of JS on the relationships between POS and TI are estimated as −0.065 (p < 0.01) in the overall sample, −0.086 (p < 0.01) in the migrant workers sample, and −0.065 (p < 0.01) in non-migrant workers sample, and they are all significant. Furthermore, the mediation effects from the bootstrap resamples do not contain any ‘zero’ in the 90% confidence intervals. The results clearly imply that hypothesis 4 and its sub-hypotheses are strongly supported.

<Table 4> Results of mediation test

Subjects	Effects	SEs	LO90	HI90	p-Values
Overall sample	−.065	.029	−.120	−.025	.002
Migrant workers	−.086	.052	−.193	−.015	.040
Non-migrant workers	−.044	.034	−.127	−.006	.043
Notes. 1,000 of the bootstrap resamples is generated. Bias is corrected within the 90% confidence interval. The standardized mediation effects of job satisfaction are displayed. SE represents standard error. LO90 and HI90 represent lower bound and upper bound under 90% confidence intervals, respectively.

5. Invariance test

The authors employed an invariance test to examine the differences in the estimated parameters between migrant and non-migrant workers, and the results are presented in Table 5. The metric invariance was confirmed as the first step. Specifically, the researchers compared the lambda (λ) coefficients constrained model (Model λ)—the model with all factor loadings set the same across the groups—against the unconstrained model (Model 0)—the model with no restricted parameter across groups. The results satisfy the primary assumption that the factor loadings of the observed variables across the two subject groups should be similar because the difference in the chi-squared value in the Model λ is not statistically significant (Δχ2(12) = 10.409; p > 0.05).

In the second step, the researchers compared the parameter (γ or β) constrained models—the models where the shared path coefficient is the same across groups—with model 0, respectively. The results, as shown in Table 5, demonstrate that the effect of POS on JS is significantly larger (0.246) in migrant workers than in non-migrant workers (Δχ2(1) = 7.942; p < 0.01), while the difference (0.072) in path coefficient from POS to TI (Δχ2(1) = 1.622; p > 0.05) and (0.010) from JS to TI (Δχ2(1) = 0.074; p > 0.05) is not significant across the two groups. In sum, the invariance tests verify that the SMR migrant workers’ boundary condition exists in the relationship between POS and JS.

Table 5. Results of invariance test

Constraints	Migrants	Non-migrants	Differences	Δχ2	ΔDF
Metric invariance
λ coefficient	.699 ≤ λ ≤ .931	.784 ≤ λ ≤ .927	−.144 ≤ Δλ ≤ .094	10.409	12
Structural invariance
Path γ1	.470	.225	.246	7.942**	1
Path γ2	−.669	−.741	.072	1.622	1
Path β3	−.183	−.194	.010	.074	1
Model 0 : χ2(174) = 339.659; RMR = .037; TLI = .925; CFI = .938; RMSEA = .068
Model λ : χ2(186) = 350.067; RMR = .044; TLI = .931; CFI = .939; RMSEA = .065
Model γ1: χ2(175) = 347.601; RMR = .076; TLI = .923; CFI = .939; RMSEA = .069
Model γ2: χ2(175) = 341.280; RMR = .040; TLI = .926; CFI = .938; RMSEA = .068
Model β3: χ2(175) = 339.733; RMR = .037; TLI = .926; CFI = .939; RMSEA = .050
Notes. Path γ1: POS ⇒ JS. Path γ2: POS ⇒ TI. Path β3: JS ⇒ TI. Model 0 represents a baseline model with no constrained parameter across groups. Model λ represents a λ constrained model with the same factor loadings across groups. Model γ1, Model γ2, and Model β3 represent γ1, γ2 and β3 constrained models with the same path coefficients for Path γ1, Path γ2 and Path β3, respectively across groups. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Ⅴ. Conclusion

1. Discussion and implications

Some of the literature in the hospitality academic field has brought up the labor shortage issue. However, prior studies focusing on migrant workers have been very rare not only in hospitality but also in the SMR setting. Given that migrant workers are an important labor force in the SMR industry, this study first applies organizational support theory to understanding migrant workers’ boundary condition in their workplace, focusing on the SMR industry. Specifically, the empirical findings reveal that POS has a significant and negative impact on TIs of not only native-born workers but also migrant workers in the SMRs. In addition, the most interesting finding is that the effects of POS on JS were stronger in the migrant workers than in their native-born counterparts. This difference implies that the support SMR organizations give to their employees more strongly assists migrant workers with job satisfaction than non-migrant workers.

This study contributes to the literature on human resources management because it provides more empirical evidence that POS directly influences TI and indirectly influences JS. The existing literature on organizational support theory shows that employees’ perception of organizational support is negatively and directly associated with their intention to leave their organizations. However, studies have rarely adopted JS as a mediator in the sequence between POS and TI. On the relationships between POS, JS, and TI, some empirical studies have employed JS as a mediator in the linkage between POS and TI, but most of them did not postulate the direct effect of POS on TI. Unlike prior research, this study simultaneously examined the direct and indirect relationships between employees’ POS, JS and TI, showing that JS has a partial mediation effect on the relationship between POS and TIs in both populations. The findings denote that POS directly relates to TI, while also indirectly influencing TI via JS. The findings give hospitality scholars and practitioners the knowledge that not only general workers but also migrant workers who gain recognition from and receive individual attention from their workplaces tend to be satisfied with their hospitality jobs and will not easily leave their restaurants.

Most migrant workers are classified as low-paid and casual workers. Not only seasonal workers and daily commuters are included in the migrant worker category but also foreign workers with permanent resident status (Baum, 2012; Datta et al., 2007; Janta, Brown, Lugosi, & Ladkin, 2011). Migrants are one minority group that often experience a glass ceiling in the hospitality industry, remaining at low-skill level jobs more than non-migrants even though they stay in their workplace for many years (Janta et al., 2011). Hospitality migrant workers perform various customer service duties and are engaged in the lower end of the workplace skills spectrum in the hospitality industry (Dyer, McDowell, & Batnitzky, 2011). The migrant workers in the SMRs are not exceptional; successful careers are crucial to both migrants and non-migrants in SMR organizations. As a consequence of one’s perception of organizational support, migrants feel more satisfied with their job and intend to remain with their organizations to achieve successful careers. As a labor shortage in the SMR industry becomes more acute, it will be more important to understand whether the boundary condition of migrant workers lessens or even disappears compared to native workers in the SMRs. According to the findings, migrant workers’ perception that the authentic support they receive from their restaurant organizations influences their willingness to remain with their organizations. Thus, to alleviate migrants’ turnover, an undesirable outcome for the SMR organizations that have severe labor shortages, it is necessary for SMR owners, entrepreneurs, and managers to devote attention to valuing migrant workers and caring for them. Those efforts will help migrant workers to have successful careers and a positive immigration experience and, in turn, love the country they migrated to.

2. Limitations and further researches

Although scholars and industry practitioners can draw interesting and significant findings from this study, future studies on migrants in the hospitality industry will enrich hospitality discourse. Since this study focuses on applying organizational support theory to understanding migrant workers’ boundary conditions in the SMR setting, it does not consider other possible variables that can affect migrant workers’ JS and TI. However, there are numerous antecedents and theories that account for hospitality employees’ JS and TI. For example, organizational justice might be a good predictor of SMR migrant workers’ JS and TI because migrant workers are probably receiving discriminative treatments in their workplaces. Therefore, a significant scholarly conversation with other possible factors and theories is necessary to expand the findings of this study and to understand disadvantaged workers such as migrants.

Another limitation of this study is that authors cannot generalize the findings to other developed countries and large-scale restaurants because the target subjects were the SMR employees (i.e., migrants and non-migrants) in a certain country. The authors hope that other scholars will conduct more progressive studies on this issue and make more meaningful research efforts on migrant workers’ boundary conditions that can be applied to a wide range of societies.

In conclusion, the hospitality industry in many developed countries suffers from a labor shortage. Particularly, the SMR industry is, relatively, facing more severe labor shortage than other types of hospitality businesses (hotels; large-scale brand restaurants). The supply of labor in the SMR industry primarily relies on migrant workers. The authors suggest that organizational support theory is one of the triggers for understanding migrant workers’ boundary conditions in the contemporary environment. This study reports on a less-investigated sample, migrants, and compares them to non-migrants, both groups working in the South Korean SMR industry. The findings show that when SMR employees positively perceive support from their organizations, they tend to be satisfied with their job, a phenomenon that stood out more broadly in migrant workers who are relatively on the boundary condition. Once migrant workers have turnover intentions, even if they do not leave their restaurants, their job satisfaction will decrease, negatively affecting organization performance. Therefore, future scholars need to add a more precise discussion regarding migrant workers’ job-related factors to the understanding of their psychology in the workplace.

Reference

Allen, D. G., Shore, L. M., & Griffeth, R. W.(2003). The Role of Perceived Organizational Support and Supportive Human Resource Practices in the Turnover Process. Journal of Management, 29(1), 99–118.

Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W.(1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.

Aryee, S., Budhwar, P. S., & Chen, Z. X.(2002). Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes: test of a social exchange model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(3), 267–285.

Baum, T.(2012). Migrant workers in the international hotel industry (International Migration Paper No. 112). International Labour Office, International Migration Branch, Sectoral Activities Department. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/sector/Resources/publications/WCMS_180596/lang--en/index.htm

Blau, P. M.(1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley.

Bonache, J.(2005). Job satisfaction among expatriates, repatriates and domestic employees: The perceived impact of international assignments on work‐related variables. Personnel Review, 34(1), 110–124.

Brown, E. A., Thomas, N. J., & Bosselman, R. H.(2015). Are they leaving or staying: A qualitative analysis of turnover issues for Generation Y hospitality employees with a hospitality education. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 46(Supplement C), 130–137.

Cho, S., Johanson, M. M., & Guchait, P.(2009). Employees intent to leave: A comparison of determinants of intent to leave versus intent to stay. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(3), 374–381.

Choi, H.-M., Kim, W. G., & McGinley, S.(2017). The extension of the theory of person-organization fit toward hospitality migrant worker. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 62(Supplement C), 53–66.

Cullen, K. L., Edwards, B. D., Casper, W. C., & Gue, K. R.(2014). Employees’ Adaptability and Perceptions of Change-Related Uncertainty: Implications for Perceived Organizational Support, Job Satisfaction, and Performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(2), 269–280.

Datta, K., McIlwaine, C., Evans, Y., Herbert, J., May, J., & Wills, J.(2007). From Coping Strategies to Tactics: London’s Low-Pay Economy and Migrant Labour. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 45(2), 404–432.

Dyer, S., McDowell, L., & Batnitzky, A.(2011). Migrant work, precarious work–life balance: what the experiences of migrant workers in the service sector in Greater London tell us about the adult worker model. Gender, Place & Culture, 18(5), 685–700.

Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., & Rhoades, L.(2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 42–51.

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D.(1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 500–507.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F.(1981). Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

Gillet, N., Gagné, M., Sauvagère, S., & Fouquereau, E.(2013). The role of supervisor autonomy support, organizational support, and autonomous and controlled motivation in predicting employees’ satisfaction and turnover intentions. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(4), 450–460.

Guchait, P., Cho, S., & Meurs, J. A.(2015). Psychological Contracts, Perceived Organizational and Supervisor Support: Investigating the Impact on Intent to Leave Among Hospitality Employees in India. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 14(3), 290–315.

Homans, G. C.(1958). Social Behavior as Exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597–606.

Hu, C., Wang, S., Yang, C.-C., & Wu, T.(2014). When mentors feel supported: Relationships with mentoring functions and protégés’ perceived organizational support. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(1), 22–37.

Janta, H., Brown, L., Lugosi, P., & Ladkin, A.(2011). Migrant relationships and tourism employment. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1322–1343.

Jawahar, I. M., & Hemmasi, P.(2006). Perceived organizational support for women’s advancement and turnover intentions: The mediating role of job and employer satisfaction. Women in Management Review, 21(8), 643–661.

Kang, B., Twigg, N. W., & Hertzman, J.(2010). An examination of social support and social identity factors and their relationship to certified chefs’ burnout. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(1), 168–176.

Karatepe, O. M.(2012). Perceived organizational support, career satisfaction, and performance outcomes: A study of hotel employees in Cameroon. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(5), 735–752.

Kim, K. Y., Eisenberger, R., & Baik, K.(2016). Perceived organizational support and affective organizational commitment: Moderating influence of perceived organizational competence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(4), 558–583.

Kim, W. G., Choi, H.-M., & Li, J. (Justin).(2016). Antecedents and outcomes of migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 58(Supplement C), 1–12.

Kline, R. B.(2015). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York, N.Y.: Guilford Publications.

Kwon, & Lee, H.-R.(2011). A Study on Relative Importance and Priority of Physical Environment for the Success of Small Scale Restaurants: Using AHP Method. Korean Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 20(4), 35–51.

Lee, H. R., & Choi, H.-M.(2013). The Model of Korean-Chinese workers’ Sociocultural Adjustment in Food-service Industry. Journal of Tourism Sciences, 37(8), 251–275.

Maertz, C. P., Griffeth, R. W., Campbell, N. S., & Allen, D. G.(2007). The effects of perceived organizational support and perceived supervisor support on employee turnover. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(8), 1059–1075.

Nadiri, H., & Tanova, C.(2010). An investigation of the role of justice in turnover intentions, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior in hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(1), 33–41.

Oshagbemi, T.(1996). Job Satisfaction of UK Academics. Educational Management & Administration, 24(4), 389–400.

Park, J. H., Newman, A., Zhang, L., Wu, C., & Hooke, A.(2016). Mentoring functions and turnover intention: the mediating role of perceived organizational support. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(11), 1173–1191.

Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F.(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891.

Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S.(2001). Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 825–836.

Riggle, R. J., Edmondson, D. R., & Hansen, J. D.(2009). A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived organizational support and job outcomes: 20 years of research. Journal of Business Research, 62(10), 1027–1030.

Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A.(2008). Organizational Behavior (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Tschopp, C., Grote, G., & Gerber, M. (2014). How career orientation shapes the job satisfaction–turnover intention link. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(2), 151–171.

Walters, G., & Raybould, M.(2007). Burnout and Perceived Organisational Support Among Front-Line Hospitality Employees. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 14(2), 144–156.

Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C.(1997). Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 82–111.

Zheng, D., Wu, H., Eisenberger, R., Shore, L. M., Tetrick, L. E., & Buffardi, L. C.(2016). Newcomer leader–member exchange: the contribution of anticipated organizational support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 89(4), 834–855.

Zopiatis, A., Constanti, P., & Theocharous, A. L.(2014). Job involvement, commitment, satisfaction and turnover: Evidence from hotel employees in Cyprus. Tourism Management, 41(Supplement C), 129–140.